Context

The Republic of Korea has ranked among the top-performing nations in PISA since 2000, the assessment’s inaugural year, despite some drops in reading and math over the past decade. Korea has one of the highest percentages of students scoring at the top of the PISA chart, and performance has consistently been more equitable across demographics than in other OECD countries: Among Korean students in 2022, socio-economic status (SES) accounted for less of the variation in performance than the OECD average, and a higher percentage of students from lower SES backgrounds scored at the highest levels than the OECD average. Korea’s academic prowess represents a remarkable achievement for a country that essentially built a brand-new education system in the latter part of the 20th century.

Following the Korean War, the Korean government shifted authority for education from local school boards to the Ministry of Education. The Basic Education Law established six years of primary school, beginning at age six, followed by three years of lower secondary school and then three years of upper secondary school. By the mid-1960s, 90 percent of children ages six to 12 were attending school, eliminating what had been widespread illiteracy. By 1979, children were enrolled in lower secondary schools at the same rates, and by 2023, virtually all 25- to 34-year-olds had completed upper secondary education—the highest rate among OECD countries. By that same year, 70 percent of this age group had also completed post-secondary education. This rate is also highest among OECD countries, and continues to grow.

Korea’s education system was and remains highly test-driven, despite recent efforts to change. In Korea, most education and career opportunities depend on which upper secondary school and college or university students attend, and admissions decisions are still based largely on test scores. As of 2023, almost 80 percent of Korean primary and secondary school students worked with private tutors, often at private after-school tutoring centers (hagwons). The prevalence of private tutoring has raised broad concerns about inequality and student stress, and the government has taken a series of steps to try to reduce the demand for private tutoring over the past decade, including limiting hagwon hours, providing alternative academic support for students at schools, and even by broadening university admissions criteria to include more than test scores. It is not clear if these measures have had much impact as top tier universities still represent the pathway to prestigious and high paying jobs for students and their families.

Teacher quality contributes significantly to Korean success. In response to severe secondary school teacher shortages in the 1960s and 1970s, Korea took steps toward building a strong, highly qualified teaching force. These included establishing four-year colleges and universities dedicated to teacher preparation; developing a system for forecasting and responding to teacher supply and demand; and increasing the salaries of teachers. The government also legally guaranteed teachers job protections, competitive salaries, and authority and input into educational matters. Today, teachers in Korea enjoy high social status, job stability, and high pay. Over 80 percent report that teaching was their first-choice profession, higher than the OECD average of 67 percent. Applicants accepted into primary school teacher education programs generally come from the top tier of their secondary school cohort, and all teachers must pass a rigorous employment exam in order to work in public schools.

During the past decade, Korea has embarked on reforms to update its already successful education system to better prepare students for a fast-changing global economy. The government revamped its curriculum to focus on the development of creativity and character along with “key competencies” across all subject areas. It has also dramatically expanded the early childhood education and care system, increased financial and academic support for high-need students, developed leadership paths and expanded training for teachers, and restructured vocational education and training to better meet labor market needs. In recent years, Korea has also accelerated efforts to integrate digital technologies and artificial intelligence into its education planning and classroom instruction.
Korea is also notable for its lifelong learning system, underway since the early 2000s. Initially focused on expanding access to higher education with a self-paced academic degree and credit bank system, it has since created training vouchers for all adults, with a goal of upskilling employed and unemployed workers to maintain skills needed for a changing economy. Finally, Korea has made its higher education network more regionally based, expanding programs that develop skills targeted to different parts of the country.

Quick Facts

Roles and responsibilities

The Ministry of Education oversees and sets policy for Korea’s education system, including higher education, vocational education, and lifelong learning. The Ministry of Health and Welfare shares responsibility for children up to age five with the Ministry of Education. 

The Ministry of Education’s Policy Advisory Council gathers information and opinions on education policy, both domestic and international, to advise the Ministry. Council members are appointed to three-year terms and include regional superintendents of education, university presidents, and representatives of education organizations and other non-governmental organizations. 

Korea also has a set of government-supported research institutes that focus on specific policy areas: the Korea Institute of Curriculum and Evaluation (KICE); the Korean Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training (KRIVET); the Korean Education and Research Information Service (KERIS) for digital education and technology; the Korean Education Development Institute (KEDI), and the Korea Institute of Child Care and Education (KICCE).

For primary and secondary education, the Ministry sets the national curriculum and national assessments. For the last 15 years, Korea has progressively devolved more authority to regional and local authorities. Korea has 17 regional education offices which oversee the education system in large metropolitan areas and provinces. These offices are responsible for school budgets and school inspection, although the central Ministry retains control over national policy. Elected regional superintendents and school boards are responsible for staff recruitment, budget allocation, and school administration. Both superintendents and a majority of board members are required to have education experience. Local education offices oversee local schools and implement national and regional policies. Each school has its own school council composed of parents, educators, and other stakeholders that contributes to decisions around promotion, professional development, and other school matters.

The Ministry is also responsible for setting national policy, allocating funding, and ensuring quality assurance across universities, junior colleges, and other higher education institutions. In addition, the Ministry coordinates with local governments, industries, and civic organizations on national initiatives to promote lifelong learning 

Goal setting and planning

Korea’s Ministry of Education prepares annual work plans outlining education policy goals for the coming year. The reports also analyze broad challenges facing Korea. For example, the Ministry’s 2024 report analyzed the impacts of declining birth rates and regional depopulation and outlined corresponding policy goals including enhancing early childhood education programs and launching targeted regional revitalization initiatives that position education as a key driver of local economic resilience and demographic sustainability. Each annual report also provides an evaluation of recently implemented education policies and initiatives. This research also contributes to regular updates of the national curriculum for primary and secondary schools.

Korea recently has also focused on longer-term planning, creating a national education committee to develop a 10-year education plan and oversee its implementation. The purpose of a decade-long plan is to ensure long-term stability in education policy regardless of changes in government. The committee members include education ministry officials, representatives of key education stakeholder groups, and members appointed by the National Assembly and the president. The committee will publish a preliminary plan in 2025 to be followed by the full plan which will lay out goals and programs for the 2027-2036 period.

Korea has also focused on planning for lifelong learning and digitalization. Korea introduced its First Lifelong Education Promotion Plan in 2002 and has been implementing a basic plan every five years since. Key priorities of the current plan—the Fifth Lifelong Education Promotion Plan (2023-2027)—include transforming universities into open learning hubs, developing regional partnerships, providing AI-based personalized learning, and increasing access for adults in their 30s–50s.

Korea has launched a series of national strategies to accelerate digital transformation across various sectors, including education. The Digital New Deal was introduced in 2020 as part of Korea’s COVID-19 recovery effort, aiming to expand digital infrastructure, reduce the digital divide, and promote foundational digital skills. Building on this foundation, the 2022 Digital Strategy of Korea sets a long-term goal to position Korea as a global digital leader, with digital education framed as a right and a means to ensure an inclusive digital society. In 2023, the Ministry of Education developed a digital education plan which outlines the rollout of AI digital textbooks, nationwide 1:1 device access, the development of a dashboard that enables teachers to manage and analyze student data, and training for teachers on enhancing learning with new technologies.

Accountability

Regional education offices inspect primary and secondary schools every one to three years, focusing on teaching and learning methods, implementation of the curriculum, educational activities, and student achievement. The Minister or the regional superintendent can add other focus areas if they choose. Regional education offices are responsible for organizing inspections and selecting teams of inspectors (usually composed of experienced teachers and school leaders) with the option to seek additional support from the Ministry. School reviews are not used punitively; instead, struggling schools are given advice on how to improve. The results of school evaluations are reported publicly.

Korea also administers the National Assessment of Educational Achievement in key subjects to students in grades 9 and 11 to monitor national progress, inform policy, and help determine supports for schools. A survey of students, teachers, and principals administered alongside the NAEA is used in conjunction with the test results to inform education policymaking. The survey collects information on variables affecting achievement including teacher and principal characteristics such as seniority or specialization and how much time students spend reading or using technology outside of school. The survey results are used to develop student well-being indexes such as school life happiness and student-teacher relationships. NAEA surveys also analyze career readiness, self-regulation, and social and emotional competencies at the national level.

The Ministry of Education oversees the accreditation of post-secondary institutions and universities in Korea. It recognizes several specialized accrediting bodies, including the Korean University Accreditation Institute (KUAI), the Korean Council for University Education (KCUE), the Korea Accreditation Board for Vocational Higher Education (KAVE), and the Korean Council for Online University (KCOU).

Financing

The Ministry of Education provides regional and local governments more than 75 percent of funding for primary and secondary schools. Among other costs, these national subsidies cover the salaries for teachers in compulsory education. The remaining quarter of education spending comes from regional funds. Most allocation of this funding is done at the local level.

Traditionally, both public and private upper secondary schools, which are not compulsory, charged tuition. These fees were subsidized for low-income students for many years and, in 2021, done away with completely in public schools, making the public system free for all students.

About 15 percent of primary and secondary schools in Korea are private, most at the secondary school level. These schools are eligible for public funding provided they adhere to the national curriculum and hold their teachers to the same certification standards as public schools. Private schools are prohibited from charging tuition at the compulsory level (primary and secondary school), while fees for upper secondary school are capped and accompanied by national subsidies for low-income students.

Korea’s Ministry of Education provides funding to public post-secondary institutions—referred to as national universities and junior colleges—and also allocates partial funding to selected private institutions. In recent years, the government has increased support for regional universities and non-university post-secondary institutions as part of a broader strategy to diversify higher education pathways and strengthen alternatives to traditional university degrees. Additionally, several major industries and corporations in Korea operate their own universities or specialized training institutions to cultivate workforce-ready talent aligned with industry needs.

Preparing for Long Life Learning: Preschool to Secondary

Preschool

Preschool programs in Korea serve children ages three to five. Participation is nearly universal, with about 96 percent of three- to five-year-olds enrolled as of 2024. About half of preschools are public and the rest private. Korea provides subsidies for families that cover most or all of preschool tuition fees.

Since 2012, all Korean preschool programs have followed the national Nuri Curriculum. In 2019, it was revised with a stronger emphasis on child-led play and teacher autonomy. The curriculum emphasizes experiential, child-centered, and play-based learning in five learning areas: physical exercise and health, communication, social relations, art experience, and nature exploration. It was designed to align to the primary school curriculum.

Primary and secondary system

Structure

Children between the ages of six and 15 are required to attend primary and lower secondary school in Korea. There are six years of primary school, three years of lower secondary school, and three years of upper secondary school, which is either general or vocational in focus.

Most students attend their local primary school but generally apply for admission to secondary schools. Since the 1970s, Korea has attempted to reduce competition for admission to prestigious secondary schools through an equalization policy. Students in “equalization zones”—generally all major metropolitan areas—are admitted to school by lottery rather than through entrance exams. These zones cover all lower secondary schools and about 60 percent of upper secondary schools. In these areas, lower secondary schools may not use entrance exams and upper secondary schools can only use them to establish minimum competency, not rank students for admission. Some parents have perceived these reforms as a lowering of standards, and a small set of highly selective autonomous and specialty upper secondary schools has developed partially in response.

Ninety-nine percent of all students complete upper secondary school in Korea. More than 75 percent of these students attend general upper secondary schools, with the remaining 25 percent attending vocational upper secondary schools or programs—a significant drop from the roughly 40 percent who did so in the 1990s. The Korean government has spent the last decade attempting to reverse this decline in enrollment.

Standards and curriculum

Korean schools follow a national curriculum developed by the Ministry of Education. The curriculum is revised every five to 10 years, with the latest revision completed in 2022 and implemented fully in 2025. Major revisions to the new curriculum include increased time for the development of literacy skills in early grades and English language skills in upper elementary, as well as a new credit system in high schools to allow for more choice of subjects and courses. Under the previous curriculum, all students in general high schools had to choose either math/science or humanities/social sciences as a focus and take most of their courses in that area, with very limited electives. Under the new version, the time required for core subjects is significantly reduced, allowing students to explore new electives on topics such as climate change and financial literacy.

These changes followed a 2015 revision of the curriculum which added six general competencies— self-management, problem-solving, creative thinking, aesthetic-emotional (valuing life and appreciating other cultures), communication skills, and civic participation and subject-specific key competencies. For example, creative thinking is a general competency, while the ability to analyze and interpret historical materials is a history-specific competency. The 2015 revision also granted schools more autonomy to add curricular content that addresses the specific needs and interests of their students, such as arts classes or additional language classes.

In grades 1 and 2 of primary school, the curriculum includes Korean and mathematics, as well as subjects called “Good Life,” “Wise Life,” and “Happy Life.” These subjects focus on the transition to school life and include basic study skills, problem-solving, creative projects, and learning through play. Science, social studies/moral education, English, physical education, and music and the arts are added for the upper primary school grades.

In lower secondary school, subjects include Korean, mathematics, science/information technology, physical education, English, music and the arts, elective courses, and dodeok, a subject encompassing social studies and moral education that is intended to foster students’ ethical reasoning, sense of social responsibility, and character development. Since 2013, the curriculum has also incorporated an “Exam-Free Semester,” where students have a modified curriculum that gives them time each day to study either a non-traditional course or to design their own independent study course. Students also engage in career exploration, community service and other interest-based activities. During this semester, there are no standardized tests or formal grading even for regular classes so as not to distract from the non-traditional activities. In 2017, the government gave schools the flexibility to offer the program for a single semester or a full year. As of 2025, career education was incorporated into the final semester of the middle school curriculum to support students in their transition to high school and prepare them to make course choices that align with their interests and goals.

Required subjects in general upper secondary schools include Korean, mathematics, English, Korean history, social studies/moral education (dodeok), science, physical education, the arts, and life and liberal arts, which includes technology, home economics, Chinese characters, a second foreign language, and liberal arts. Depending on the subject, students can fulfill some or all of their required credits through electives.

If students choose to attend vocational schools for upper secondary instead of general schools, their courseload consists of about 40 percent general subjects and 60 percent vocational subjects. They also take a set of courses designed by their individual school to align with the interests and career plans of the student body. In vocational schools, students take a common set of academic courses in their first year, a combination of academic and vocational courses in their second year, and specialized courses in their third year.

In addition to academic subjects, curriculum for both primary and secondary schools includes Creative Experiential Learning (CEL) activities, which are hands-on activities such as participation in clubs, volunteering, and career exploration. CEL activities account for about 10-15 percent of curriculum time, depending on grade level.

As part of its effort to reduce reliance on private tutoring and better support working families, in 2024 Korea launched the Neulbom School initiative, a comprehensive before- and after-school care program for all elementary students. Neulbom schools offer academic support as well as a range of enrichment programs in sports and the arts.

Assessment and credentialing

Korea assesses its students at all levels using school-developed tests. The national curriculum specifies that tests should focus on essay writing and similarly complex tasks, rather than multiple-choice questions. In 2015, Korea introduced achievement standards to provide more specific guidance to teachers about what students are expected to learn. Teachers create written tests and use performance-based tasks to assess students against the standards.

Korea monitors its education system using the National Assessment of Educational Achievement (NAEA). The subjects tested, the grade levels involved, and the scope of student population tested—universal or sample-based—has shifted over time. Since 2017, Korea has administered the NAEA in Korean, mathematics and English to a sample of students in grades 9 and 11 and in social studies and science to students in grade 9. The government uses the test results to direct support to schools and inform policy at the Ministry level.

A second assessment, the Subject Learning Diagnostic Test (SLDT), is administered by regional education offices nationwide early in the school year to help schools identify and support struggling students. It is given to all students in grades 1 to 11 in Korean, mathematics, English, social studies, and science.

Students earn a General High School Certificate when they graduate from either general or specialized high school programs. Students who want to continue to junior college, polytechnic college, or university generally take the subject-based College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT).

The CSAT is a highly competitive test that traditionally was the primary entry criterion for university. Many Korean students take classes outside of school in hagwons (tutoring centers) to prepare for the test and pressure to do well is intense. The intense focus on the CSAT has led to a spate of reforms to the higher education admissions process over the last two decades aimed at making it less stressful and more fair.

In 1997, Korea created an early admissions process that considers broader criteria including the student records, extra-curricular activities, and additional essay exams by universities alongside CSAT scores. This route gained steam in the 2010s and became the primary route for admission since then, with over 75 percent of students admitted this way by 2019. Since then, the government has introduced regulations to reduce the percent of students universities can admit by early admissions, now concerned that families with more resources can invest in helping students develop their broader portfolios and that the admissions process itself is less transparent. The Ministry also implemented reforms to the student record system to promote fairness: for example, achievements and certifications obtained through private tutoring or outside-of-school programs are no longer allowed to be included.

More recent reforms have focused on the test itself: Grading is now standards-based instead of norm-referenced, and fewer advanced-level CSAT tests are offered, as these are seen to drive a reliance on private tutoring and encourage students to “game” the system rather than choose tests based on interests. Finally, the Ministry now requires all students to take exams in both the humanities and sciences instead of specializing in one path or the other. There are currently plans to increase the test’s emphasis on written answers and rely less on multiple choice.

Digital resources

Korea began exploring digital textbooks in the late 1990s and launched full-scale policy implementation in 2007. After several rounds of developing and piloting prototype textbooks, the Ministry of Education officially rolled out digital textbooks to all schools in 2018, for use alongside printed textbooks. As part of Korea’s Digital-Based Education Innovation Plan, the Ministry started to pilot AI-powered digital textbooks to replace printed texts in 2025, with a goal of full implementation by 2027. These textbooks offer interactive content, real-time feedback, and individualized learning. This effort was paused, however, after a new administration led by a party critical of the initiative won office. There were also some concerns among parent groups about increasing screen time and among teachers about their preparedness for the shift. The digital texts have been reclassified, for now, as supplementary materials. Students will continue to have access to AI-powered tutoring systems. All Korean primary and secondary students now have an individual tablet or laptop.

Established in 2003 and operated by the Korea Education and Research Information Service (KERIS), the National Education Information System (NEIS) is Korea’s central digital platform for managing school administration and student records. It stores comprehensive data on student enrollment, academic performance, attendance, behavior, health, and graduation status, as well as teacher profiles, evaluations, and school-level statistics.

Korea’s Edunet, also managed by KERIS, is a comprehensive public learning platform that offers curriculum-aligned digital learning content, video lectures, open educational resources, teacher training materials, and classroom activity guides. Edunet has long supported teachers in lesson preparation and students in self-directed learning, particularly in core academic subjects.

KERIS operates a range of additional digital education services, including e-Hakseupteo for online learning, Toktok! Math Explorers for interactive math education, Korean for Everyone in support of multicultural and international students, Doekseoro for leveled reading, Learning Community Wedorang and ITDA for teacher collaboration and professional learning, and Doran Doran for cyber bullying prevention and student well-being.

Korea’s public Educational Broadcasting System (EBS), originally established in the 1950s to provide educational television programming, has since expanded its mission to include online teaching and learning. Today, EBS has multiple online channels broadcasting lessons aligned to the national curriculum across grade levels. EBS also provides free online resources to help students prepare for the College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT) at the end of upper secondary school. These resources form part of the government’s drive for greater equity around standardized test preparation.

Learning supports

Struggling learners

Korea has a variety of supports in place for students who struggle academically. In 2008, the government announced the “Zero Plan for Below-Basic Students,” an effort to provide targeted support to raise achievement for the lowest-performing students. One element of the plan, the Schools for Improvement program, provided schools serving high shares of low-performing students in elementary and lower secondary schools with extra funding, assistant teachers, and an extended academic year. In 2013, the Ministry introduced a second plan called “Do-Dream Schools.” Schools with the Do-Dream designation—about 60 percent as of 2022—receive funding for parent and student counseling, after-school academic or enrichment programming, and other holistic supports. Do-Dream teams of teachers, school leaders, and other support specialists such as school nurses work with students to improve their academic performance. The Ministry identifies needy schools using multiple indicators of student achievement, including school-based assessments and teacher recommendations, as well as through consideration of socioeconomic status and emotional or behavioral needs of the student body. Schools may choose whether to participate in the program.

In 2022, the government announced its intention to combine the Zero Plan and the Do-Dream Schools Plan under the Basic Competency Assurance Plan, with the goal of creating a more cohesive, systemwide framework offering multiple levels of support for schools. Full national implementation of the plan, which will incorporate a new AI-based diagnostic and support system (e.g., AI-assisted instruction, adaptive curriculum, and learning progress tracking), is anticipated by 2027.

More recently, Korea has put in place supports for students at risk of dropping out as well as recovery programs for those who do. Students who want to leave school must first complete a mandatory waiting period. During this time, they have access to career counseling and alternative education classes leading to an upper secondary school diploma. Alternative educational classes are provided by a national network of about 100 institutions operated under annual contracts and supervised by local Offices of Education.

Students who do drop out of school are referred to the Ministry of Gender Equality and Family, which operates a nationwide network of over 200 “K-Dream” youth support centers. K-Dream centers connect students with personalized support, including psychological counseling, career counseling, health services, education, and training. Some cities provide additional support. Notably, the city of Seoul provides students who have dropped out with tuition subsidies for learning programs and online courses, as well as a monthly stipend for internship program participation. Students are also provided with counseling, meals, medical support, and transportation to enable them to continue learning. The share of Korean students who did not complete upper secondary school was only 1 percent in 2023, a decline from 8 percent a decade earlier.

Special learning needs

Students with special needs make up roughly 2 percent of the student population in Korea. About 70 percent of these students—those with mild to moderate needs—are served in mainstream schools, either in special classes, in regular classes with individualized support services, or a combination of the two. The remaining students with more complex needs are served through a network of special needs schools. Most special schools are comprehensive, serving students of all ages who need intensive support. Services for students with special needs have expanded dramatically since the mid-2000s, and a policy priority has been to serve as many students as possible in mainstream schools. This has meant many new jobs for special education teachers in mainstream schools and expanded professional learning opportunities for mainstream teachers to prepare them to work with students with special needs. Teachers in mainstream schools are mandated to receive at least 60 hours of training on special education, and each school is required to set up a support team consisting of guardians, special education teachers, mainstream teachers, counselors, and additional professionals.

The Ministry of Education develops a new special education plan every five years. The most recent, for 2023-2027, lays out plans to improve early diagnosis and intervention by collaborating with social service and medical agencies, determine how to support schools in providing inclusive education, and enhance pathways for students to transition to employment and post-secondary education.

Advanced learners

Under the Gifted Education Promotion Act, gifted education in Korea is operated through a system of gifted classes, gifted education centers, and gifted high schools. The majority of programming is in STEM, but some is offered in foreign languages, arts, sports, and humanities. In addition to gifted high schools, specialized science high schools also offer options for gifted students as they have advanced STEM curricula and selective admissions. In total, students enrolled in gifted education programs—including in specialized science high schools—make up just over 1 percent of the overall student population in Korea.

Schools and centers manage their own admissions processes, typically selecting students using a combination of tests, interviews, and teacher recommendations. The Korean Educational Development Institute (KEDI) has also developed a suite of standardized assessment tools that help identify gifted students more accurately and consistently.

Gifted classes are typically offered after school or as pull-out programs. Gifted education center programming also typically takes place outside school hours and is operated by universities, government-funded research institutions, or regional education offices. These centers offer intensive weekend or vacation programs for gifted students identified through regional selection processes. Gifted high schools are full-time and offer deeply enriched and individualized curricula, often in collaboration with universities and research institutes.

Every five years, the Ministry of Education announces a national plan for gifted education. The most recent plan for 2023-2027 aims to improve early identification of high-potential students—especially those from underserved backgrounds. It also aims to diversify gifted education beyond traditional STEM areas by increasing offerings in AI, software, humanities, arts, and entrepreneurship.

CTE and Long Life Learning

System overview

Korea has undergone a major transformation in its approach to vocational education and lifelong learning over the past few decades. In the 1970s and 1980s, the government built a robust vocational education and training (VET) system. With nearly half of all upper secondary students enrolled in vocational programs, these programs played a crucial role in supplying skilled technicians for Korea’s rapidly industrializing economy. The programs were also closely aligned with the needs of large conglomerates (chaebols) that offered workers lifelong employment and well-defined career pathways.

However, as the economy matured, national policy shifted toward expanding university education. A university degree became the dominant route to stable, high-status employment, leading to a sharp increase in higher education attainment and a steady decline in enrollment in VET, which has dropped by roughly half from its peak.  While the rise in higher ed attainment resulted in a highly educated workforce, it also led to a growing mismatch between labor market needs and the skills of graduates. In recent years, Korea has seen an oversupply of university-educated workers and a worrying underdevelopment of technical talent. This trend is especially troubling for employers in the context of a shrinking student population.

In an effort to boost participation in vocational education, Korea has launched a comprehensive effort to rebalance and modernize its education and training system to support expanded initial skills development in high-growth and emerging industries and lifelong upskilling to reflect a changing labor market. It has also expanded regional and industry-aligned advanced training and degree-level education; and built new adult learning pathways through voucher and credit systems that recognize a diversity of learning experiences.

Secondary and post-secondary CTE

The Ministry of Education oversees almost all aspects of vocational education, including setting policy, authorizing providers and programs, and developing the national curriculum for vocational subjects. Formerly, the Ministry of Education also oversaw development of occupational standards for its vocational education programs, but in 2010 the Ministry of Employment and Labor created a unified set of occupational standards (known as the National Competency Standards) in 24 areas key to the Korean economy.  These standards are now used in curriculum development and certification across all types and levels of vocational education. Since 2015, Industry Skills Councils—formed by businesses, schools, and industry experts—review and update the Standards regularly to reflect evolving industry demands and new job types.

Students first enter vocational education and training (VET) in upper secondary school. Specialized upper secondary high schools account for most enrollment. They offer a three-year program: year one is devoted to academic subjects, year two covers a combination of academic and vocational coursework, and year three focuses on specialized training in a vocational field such as manufacturing, information technology, or agriculture. Most students complete one semester of work-based learning during their third year. Schools determine which programs they will offer based on local labor market needs, and about one-quarter of specialized high schools offer apprenticeships as part of their programs. The vast majority of secondary VET teachers are part-time, as most continue to work in their industry. 

About 5 percent of upper secondary VET students enroll in a small network of Meister schools. Created in 2010, these schools are designed to prepare highly skilled workers (“masters”) in industries of national or local strategic importance, such as electronics, energy, and robotics. Meister schools work directly with industry partners to develop their own specialized curricula. They have competitive entrance requirements and guarantee employment to their graduates. Graduates are required to go directly into the workforce for at least three years; after that, they may pursue higher education without needing to take the CSAT, and many do. 

After graduating from upper secondary VET and receiving their high school certificates along with skills qualification certificates based on the National Competency Standards, students can go directly to work, apply to two- to three-year advanced vocational programs at junior or polytechnic colleges, or apply to university. Secondary VET graduates receive priority admission to higher education through special admission tracks, and tuition is often subsidized or waived. About 45 percent of secondary VET graduates pursue further education.

During the past decade, Korea has sought to boost student interest in VET and better align VET programs and labor market needs. It increased emphasis on career exploration in the primary and lower secondary curriculum. The government has also focused on expanding apprenticeship opportunities for students enrolled in specialized schools. Korea is focused on lowering the cost to companies of apprenticeships and on building coordination between specialized schools and junior colleges so that students have clear pathways to continue their training within specific industry areas. 

More recently, the government designated a new set of Meister high schools in high-tech fields like semiconductors and AI, reorganized vocational school departments to better align with emerging industries, and enhanced the digital capacity of specialized high schools. The government has also unveiled targeted training programs and supports to assist VET graduates transition from school to employment.

Higher education

Korea’s higher education sector includes research and technological universities as well as specialized teacher universities. Most universities are private, but a set of public universities (known as national universities) are among the most competitive and prestigious. There is a growing number of cyber and open universities.  Through the 1980s, many major corporations created their own universities, most of which have merged with new polytechnics or universities or become internal training divisions of the corporations, but corporations still maintain significant influence and are key funding partners of many institutions.  

As an alternative or precursor to university, students may attend one of Korea’s public or private colleges. These schools, which include a network of private polytechnic colleges with strong links to industry, primarily offer two- and three-year technician-level degree programs. The programs combine theory and practical skills, serving both as entry points to the workforce and as steppingstones to four-year universities.  

In Korea, students seeking admission to junior colleges, polytechnic colleges, or universities typically apply through either regular admission or early admission. Regular admission is based primarily on scores from the College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT).  Early admission allows institutions to consider a broader set of criteria—including interviews, academic records, extracurricular activities, and teacher recommendations.

Students pay tuition at all public and private institutions, though tuition is generally higher at private institutions. The Ministry of Education, alongside the Korea Student Aid Foundation (KOSAF), provides a range of financial supports including need-based grants, merit scholarships, and subsidies for students from low-income families. Students can also apply for student loans to help cover tuition and living expenses; over the past decade, Korea has lowered the student loan interest rate to its current level of 2 percent.

In recent years, Korea has launched significant reforms of the higher education sector to respond to a shrinking student population, varying quality across institutions, and worrisome mismatches between student skillsets and labor market needs. Korea initiated a review of university performance and used the results to guide its funding priorities, with the goal of steering investment toward high-performing institutions in high-growth fields. In addition to government-led reforms, many universities, especially regional and private institutions, are merging departments, limiting admissions, or closing programs altogether.

Korea has a goal of strengthening regional institutions, as they are often closely tied to the economic needs of their communities. The Regional Innovation System & Education (RISE) initiative has transferred authority and funding to local governments so they can better support regional universities. The government is also investing substantial funds into 30 existing institutions (to be known as “Glocal Colleges” by 2026) in order to foster global competitiveness and contribute to regional innovation.

Adult education and upskilling

Korea designed its first Life Long Learning Promotion Plan in 2002, though many of the system’s key policies had been in place for much longer. Korea created an open university in the 1970s with the aim of democratizing higher education for a much broader range of citizens. In 1990, the government created a “self-study” path toward the bachelor’s degree, allowing students to learn independently and pass examinations. And in 1997, it established a system of Life Long Learning accounts and an Academic Credit Bank system (ACBS). Life Long Learning accounts are digital records that track and assign credit for individual learning outside of school; the ACBS then allows adults to convert informal and formal learning experiences into traditional academic credits with the potential to accumulate into a full degree.

In the early 2000s, Korea passed legislation to establish the National Institute for Lifelong Education (NILE) to oversee and promote lifelong learning nationally. Seventeen provincial-level institutions were created, and local governments were required to develop offices to manage lifelong learning and to open new centers to provide learning in their communities. In recent years, NILE’s work has expanded to include support for educators, multicultural learners, parents, and underserved populations, including people with disabilities, and to manage long-standing online learning platforms such as K-MOOC and Neulbaeum that support accessible learning for adults.  

In 2008, the Ministry of Employment and Labor also created the Tomorrow Learning Card, a voucher entitling all adults to a set amount of vocational and skills training. In 2020, the Ministry integrated systems for unemployed and employed workers into a unified National Training Card, which now also covers categories of workers previously excluded from the system such as the self-employed. The Card operates as a voucher for a set amount of funds which can be used for up to five years in a wide range of in-person and online training courses offered by government-approved vocational training institutions. Low‑income individuals are eligible for additional training funds.

Since 2018, lifelong learning policy in Korea has emphasized inclusivity and digital transformation.   The Ministry of Education introduced the Lifelong Learning Voucher System to enable low-income and marginalized individuals to access vocational and basic learning programs. The Ministry of Employment and Labor launched the K-Digital Platform in 2021 to provide an online learning hub for the high-demand digital skills needed for AI and big data. The platform allows different providers to post training opportunities but also offers companies a platform to create customized training pathways for prospective workers.

Joining Forces to Ensure All Learners Thrive

Supports for the well-being of young children and families

A critical ongoing concern for Korea is its declining fertility rate. In 2018, the average number of children per woman fell below one and has continued to drop since, placing Korea well below the OECD average of 1.7. Since 2010, the government has committed substantial resources to addressing low population growth, chiefly through expanding support for young children and their families.

Korea provides extensive family leave. New parents have 90 days of maternity leave and 20 days of paternity leave. In addition, each parent is entitled to one year of government-subsidized parental leave, paid at 80 percent of salary for the first nine months and 40 percent for the last three months. In 2019, the government added a provision to allow each parent to work reduced hours for an additional year after a child’s birth while receiving 80 percent of their full salary; parents can take off one to five hours each day, for which the government subsidizes employers. 

The government has made a concerted effort to increase the historically low share of fathers taking leave over the last decade, in hopes that more evenly distributed childcare responsibilities will encourage more women to have children. Measures include an increase in the monthly parental leave payment if a second parent takes leave; increases in the duration of paid paternity leave; and provisions to allow both parents to take parental leave simultaneously. Korea has seen progress, with the proportion of fathers taking parental leave steadily increasing from less than 10 percent in 2016 to over 35 percent in 2025. 

In addition to leave policies, Korea provides ongoing financial support to all families of young children. All expectant parents receive a “Citizen-Happiness Voucher” to cover expenses related to pregnancy and childbirth. In 2018, a monthly child allowance was introduced for children up to age six in all but the highest-earning families, and in 2019, the allowance was expanded to cover all families with children up to age seven, regardless of income. 

In 2013-14, the Korean government introduced the Nuri initiative, a set of policies designed to expand access to and increase the quality of childcare and early childhood education. Through the Nuri initiative, every family with children up to age two receives an “i(Child)-Happiness” card providing subsidies to pay for full-day care in childcare centers overseen by the Ministry of Health and Welfare. The vast majority of childcare centers are privately operated, but the Ministry has set a national cap on fees for both public and private centers in order to ensure affordability. All programs for children up to age two follow Korea’s National Standard Child Care Curriculum. About 65 percent of children ages zero to two are enrolled in childcare in Korea, significantly above the OECD average of 36 percent.  

National Health Insurance, Korea’s mandatory public health insurance, provides health care coverage for all families. The government subsidizes almost all health care costs for children under 15, including infants.  Among other programs focusing on maternal and child health, the Nutrition Plus project provides nutritional services for pregnant women and young children identified as needing support based on factors like low birth weight.

Supports for the well-being of school-age children

Korea provides support services for all children with economic or other disadvantages, as well as targeted supports for immigrant and multi-cultural students. The “Dream Start” program, operated across the country by the Ministry of Health and Welfare, provides wraparound services for eligible children from birth to age 12, such as those from low-income families. Dream Start teams coordinate with local providers to deliver tailored support services and ongoing case management to families, including prenatal and postnatal care, home visits, health checkups and immunizations, academic tutoring, psychological support, parenting education, and childcare assistance. 

Students from immigrant families have access to targeted counseling and welfare services, and the government has instituted a “Global Bridge” program for multicultural students, defined in Korea as children with one Korean parent and one foreign parent. North Korean defector families receive additional tailored support through the resettlement system, such as tuition exemptions and counseling. About 4 percent of the student population is multi-cultural. The Global Bridge program, which selects 100 multicultural students to participate each year, is intended to provide connections between Korea and students’ home countries. The Ministry of Education Support Plan for Multicultural Education details additional strategies for supporting students from diverse backgrounds. These include mentorship from university students proficient in students’ first languages; Korean language and culture classes; curriculum development in areas such as foreign language or “global citizenship education”; improved career education and counseling; relevant teacher training in teacher preparation programs and in-service professional learning; and increased funding for Local Centers for Multicultural Education to facilitate coordination among community organizations. 

The government has also tried to reduce family spending on private tutoring, a source of income-based inequality in Korea. Efforts have included limiting the operating hours of tutoring centers (hagwons), subsidizing substantial after-school tutoring in schools as an alternative to hagwons, and providing no-cost supplementary materials to families via an Education Broadcasting System and an internet portal. In addition, the government has attempted to regulate private tutoring, requiring school lessons and assessments to cover only what has been taught in school. Efforts to regulate hagwons have proved difficult to enforce, however.. Spending on private education declined significantly as a share of GDP from 2000 to 2015 but has risen again since then. Some explanations are that the declining birth rate allows parents to spend more money on fewer and younger children and that the cost of tutoring itself has actually risen significantly.

High-Capacity Educators

Teachers

Recruitment and retention

Teaching is a high-status and well-paid job in Korea.  Entry into the profession is highly competitive and Korea is one of the few OECD countries not facing a teacher shortage, although this can be partially explained by its declining population of students. Teacher retention is high; less than 2 percent of teachers leave the profession each year, though in recent years growing numbers of teachers have reported high levels of stress, often citing excessive workloads and unfair treatment from parents. In response to high-profile protests from teachers about malicious parent complaints, provoked by a tragic case in which a young elementary teacher committed suicide, the government enacted a set of laws in 2023 aimed at reinforcing teachers’ rights and establishing legal protections for them against harassment and other forms of disrespect.

Currently, the recruitment process is very different for primary and secondary school teachers. Korea closely regulates the supply of primary school teachers, who are trained at only 13 institutions across the country; secondary school teachers are trained at a much broader set of institutions and programs. This has resulted in very competitive admission to primary school teaching programs and high job placement rates, and less competitive admission to secondary school teaching programs along with much lower job placement rates. An important cause of this discrepancy is the employment exam primary and secondary school teachers must pass in order to work in public schools. Due to the oversupply of secondary school teachers, candidates must score very well on the employment exam to qualify for a teaching spot, making hiring rather than school admission the key selection point. Indeed, only about one in five trained secondary school teachers works as teachers.  

In 2021, Korea announced a series of changes to the teacher preparation and hiring process aimed at reducing both the oversupply of teachers and the competition for secondary school hiring. Key to the new system has been an overall reduction in the number of sites for teacher preparation and the introduction of an integrated bachelor’s and master’s degree program that extends the training path from four to six years and grants graduates a teaching license without requiring them to take the employment exam. The reform is also seen as strengthening teacher preparation overall by aligning it more closely with the education requirement in other leading systems.

Preparation and induction

To date, primary school teacher candidates in Korea are only trained in education bachelor’s degree programs at 11 national universities of education, one public university, and one private university. Secondary school teacher candidates have more options: they may enroll in programs at a broader range of colleges and universities to attain a bachelor’s degree in education with a subject specialization, a bachelor’s degree in a subject with teaching specialization or a master’s degree in education following a bachelor’s degree without a teaching specialization. As of 2025, most secondary teacher candidates enroll in undergraduate education programs, although enrollment patterns may change as the integrated graduate program becomes more established.  

The Korean government operates an accreditation system for teacher preparation programs to assure quality across institutions; to remain eligible for government funding, programs must adhere to national curriculum standards and submit to periodic evaluation. The Ministry of Education will begin to reduce the number of students admitted to secondary school teacher training programs and will reduce programs in 2026.

Every teacher in Korea for primary school through post-secondary is required to have a subject major, which is listed on his or her teaching certificate. Teachers must earn about two-thirds of their credits in their subject majors and one-third in broader education. Subject major courses include content knowledge and content-specific pedagogy, while courses in education include educational theory and courses tailored to current social issues, as well as a practicum requirement. For primary school teacher candidates, the practicum component typically covers nine to 10 weeks and includes observation, participation, teaching, and administrative work. For secondary school teacher candidates, undergraduate programs typically include four-week practicums. As part of the new teacher preparation reforms, all programs will shift to a semester-long practicum in 2028; the aim is to improve classroom readiness. Program content will also be updated that year to reflect the changing role of teachers in a changing economy and world. The government will encourage multi-subject teacher certification in an effort to help schools address enrollment decline.

Once teachers have completed their undergraduate training they receive a Grade II certificate, which qualifies them to work in a school. Before applying for a teaching position, all candidates except those graduated from the integrated programs  must take a national employment exam. The exam has two parts: a written test that includes multiple-choice and essay questions and an interview that includes lesson plan preparation and a demonstration lesson. The exam is highly competitive and teachers are ranked based on their scores. Many teacher candidates hire private tutors to prepare for the exam. 

Once teachers are hired, they go through three stages of school-based induction: pre-employment training, post-employment training, and follow-up training. The Ministry introduced a plan in 2016 to reduce the teaching hours of new teachers to provide them more time for this induction support. Pre-employment training typically lasts for two weeks and focuses on the practical elements of job preparation, like classroom management. This is followed by six months of on-the-job training, which is typically provided by principals, vice principals, and teacher mentors and involves instructional guidance and evaluation, classroom supervision, and instruction on clerical work and student guidance. Finally, during two weeks of follow-up training, new teachers share what they have learned through presentations, reports, or discussion with peers. Teachers can be upgraded to a Grade I certificate after three years of experience and 180 hours of required in-service qualification training. A Grade I certificate allows teachers to apply for leadership positions, such as Principal or Master Teacher. 

Preschool teacher preparation requirements vary depending on whether they work at a childcare center (for children 0-5) or a kindergarten (for children 3-5). Kindergarten teachers must complete at least a two-year college degree specializing in early childhood education, which leads to a Grade II teaching certificate. Preschool teachers working in childcare centers must complete a one-year training program after graduation from high school, which leads to a Grade III teaching certificate. Vocational teachers at the post-secondary level must meet the same qualifications as other academic teachers.  

Roles and career progression

Teachers in Korea have three types of opportunities for promotion: becoming a Master Teacher, becoming a principal, or becoming an “education specialist,” such as a school inspector or a research specialist. Teacher promotion on all tracks depends on a points system, with points accrued for years of teaching experience, performance on annual evaluations, and pursuit of professional learning opportunities, including required qualification training programs. Teachers can also earn points for specific forms of service, such as teaching in remote areas or in special education schools. 

Korea piloted the Master Teacher designation in 2008 and implemented it nationwide in 2012. About 25 percent of primary and secondary school teachers in Korea are Master Teachers. Master Teachers continue teaching a reduced class schedule while taking on new responsibilities such as mentoring, leading professional learning experiences, and designing curriculum. To apply to become a Master Teacher, teachers must have a Grade I certificate, 15 years of teaching experience, and be recommended by their schools. Screening committees in each regional education office evaluate applicants by observing them teaching, reviewing their peer interview results, and conducting an in-depth interview. Master Teachers must also complete qualification training. Specialist positions, such as school inspector or research specialist, require a minimum of eight years of teaching experience. Teachers promoted to these roles go on to work at either the Ministry of Education or regional education offices. 

Part of the career progression for teachers in public schools is periodic rotation among schools. Every five years, a teacher must rotate to another school in the same region.   Often they are assigned to schools that need their particular skills. As a result, teachers gain experience in a variety of settings over the course of their careers, and schools gain the expertise of teachers matched to their needs.

Evaluation and professional learning

In 2024, Korea introduced a new Teacher Competency Development Support System with a stronger emphasis on teacher-led professional growth than the previous system. Teacher training programs and evaluations are now competency-based and progress-oriented. Teacher evaluation includes self-evaluations, peer evaluations, student survey results, and principal feedback. Due to concerns about their relevance as well as their potential harm to teachers, parent surveys are no longer included in individual teacher evaluations. 

The national Professional Development Master Plan, created in 2015, lays out a comprehensive structure for professional learning throughout the teaching career. It recommends specific professional learning for educators according to their stage of career development, from beginning teachers to school leaders. Principals support professional development by recommending particular programs to teachers and using school funds to subsidize participation. The Korean Educational Development Institute has proposed to update the 2015 plan so it aligns with the new Teacher Competency Development Support System.

Professional learning opportunities are offered through both public and private providers, with private courses subject to government approval. Courses include training for specific qualifications, as well as in-service training and special training opportunities such as research sabbaticals or study abroad. Recently there has been an emphasis on expanding collaborative professional learning, with a focus on AI integration and instructional innovation. For example, in alignment with the 2022 revised national curriculum, the Seoul Metropolitan Office of Education is offering tiered teacher training programs focused on AI and digital tools, and supporting teacher-led innovation and collaboration through teacher learning communities. 

Korea has committed around $740 million over a concentrated period (2024-2026) to train teachers in innovative, AI-enhanced teaching practices. In addition, the Ministry of Education continues to promote teacher-led professional learning by training Lead Teachers in areas such as global citizenship and digital education. 

Korea’s system of performance-based pay also serves as an incentive for teachers to pursue professional development. Remuneration varies from school to school but is developed with guidance from the Ministry of Education. Pay raises depend on a teacher’s quality of instruction, time spent on student guidance, administrative contributions, and professional development pursued.

Leaders

Roles and responsibilities

School principals in Korea are responsible for setting a clear vision, managing teaching and learning, fostering collaboration, supporting professional development, and upholding professional ethics, as outlined in the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and evaluation manuals. As leaders equipped with educational knowledge and moral character, they are expected to respond to emerging challenges and needs of students and teachers. Vice principals support the principals in managing school operations, student guidance, and administrative responsibilities.

Principals are officially employees of the central government. They serve up to two four-year terms for a maximum tenure of eight years at a given school, after which they can request a transfer or are assigned to a new school. Rural and very small schools are given priority when requesting a new principal through this transfer system. Some regions are beginning to allow principals to serve for more than two terms. If a principal decides to finish their term before retirement, they may return to teaching and serve in teacher leadership roles. Most principals are highly experienced teachers who accumulate many years in the classroom before becoming principals.

Recruitment, preparation and development

School leadership positions are prestigious and in high demand. Most teachers begin leadership roles by earning a vice principal license, which requires at least three years of teaching experience and completion of formal training. After serving as a vice principal with good reviews, candidates may pursue a principal license, which usually requires a vice principal qualification, additional training, and cumulative teaching and leadership experience. Principal training is generally provided by universities but is organized around Ministry guidelines that specify a program length of 180 hours over 30 or more days. Seventy to 80 percent of program content must be related to school administration and management, with the remaining courses focused on broader education topics. All qualification training is government-funded.  Principal candidates are then directly appointed to schools.  

Alternatively, districts may participate in an open recruitment process. The government revised the law to allow open recruitment with the aim of attracting stronger leaders through more flexible and open selection processes. Traditionally, principals were appointed “by invitation,” based on seniority and experience but often overlooking emerging talent. The open route allows external candidates with relevant certifications and substantial experience to apply. It accounts for a small but rising number of appointments, rising from two percent in 2012 to 10 percent in 2022. Candidates who are selected but lack licensure participate in a training program upon appointment, which leads to a principal qualification. 

The new Teacher Competency Development Support System includes guidelines for professional development for school leaders. The National Education Training Institute (NETI) provides a variety of professional learning programs for in-service principals and vice principals, aligning with the 2022 revised national curriculum and national priorities. For example, the Digital Leadership Program (DLP) is a multi-level professional development series that includes foundational training in digital literacy as well as advanced modules on digital technology, data-based school management, and classroom innovation using AI. Korea also encourages principals to participate in global leadership development, such as the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation School Leadership Program, in order to support cross-national benchmarking and collaborative learning.

Principals and vice principals are evaluated by the Superintendent once a year through self-assessment, peer evaluation, and a parent survey on school satisfaction. The evaluation covers areas such as the school’s education plan, scholarship programs, staff management, facility oversight, and budget administration. The Superintendent provides each principal and vice principal with detailed evaluation results and uses these outcomes to develop training plans with the principal for continuous improvement.